This is Marcus's 2nd biggest/longest writing project to date, but the most difficult. (The previous was a fictional narrative.) He has done all the research, planning, and outlining himself. He edited it with my help. I'm very proud of him - this was a monster project he handled graciously and with more maturity expected of a 9 year old. It took him a good 2 weeks and many drafts and edits. He seems to have a tendency to write to long sentences and had to work on dividing these into 2 or 3 more easily readable pieces/sentences. It's not quite run-on sentences, as they mostly make sense - they are just to long. He enjoyed the research part of it, and wants to continue writing on volcanoes as an extension of this report.
Crust Chronicles
Plate boundaries are where two continental plates meet. One might encounter extreme environmental conditions near these treacherous areas. There are three types of plate boundaries that are usually the cause of some natural disasters, mainly earthquakes and volcanoes.
The first type of plate boundary is called a divergent boundary. This is where two tectonic plates move away from each other. Since the crust is parted, magma rises and erupts, resulting in a volcano. Most of these volcanoes are found in the depths of the oceans. As the ocean floor expands, it puts pressure on the land, which can result in earthquakes and tsunamis. This immense pressure and resulting lava flow can also create mid-ocean ridges, mountains that form underwater. When these mountains reach above the surface of the ocean, an island is born! These boundaries are therefore also referred to as “constructive boundaries.”
The second type of boundary is called a transform boundary. Transform boundaries occur when the earth’s plates grind past each other. Massive earthquakes occur at occasional faults along these boundaries. These boundaries only exist on land and are best known for the San Andreas fault that runs through California. Since additional crust is neither created or destroyed, they were given the nickname “conservative boundaries.”
Lastly, convergent boundaries are when two plates collide. At times, these plates smash each other so forcefully that they subduct. Subduction means that one continental plate slides under another plate. This often results in major earthquakes. Since one plate slides under the other, the lower plate melts under the intense pressure as well as heat created by friction. The sudden burst of pressure causes all the volcanoes in this area to erupt. Because of this, some call them “destructive boundaries,” referring to the crust that is destroyed or destructed in the process of subduction.
Most scientists believe that the hotspot mechanism is responsible for certain volcanic activity. They think that this is how the Hawaiian, Galapagos, and a few Indonesian islands were formed. This happens when the earth’s crust passes over an enormous chamber, or column of magma, called mantle plumes, just below the earth’s crust. Usually, magma is found in the asthenosphere or thereunder, while hotspot magma is found above the asthenosphere. The magma then rises up through the crust and erupts as a volcano once at the surface. These volcanoes keep erupting until they pass completely over the hotspot. When a new piece of crust moves over the hotspot, a volcano reforms. These can construct a chain of islands like the hotspot islands that exist currently!
There is another theory geologists suggest might be the cause of volcanic islands away from plate boundaries. This mechanism is similar to that of a convergent boundary. It occurs when two or more plates compress another plate between them. This causes land to rise, forming mountains or volcanoes towards the center of the plate. This theory also may explain the existence of some lone islands like Fiji, Vanuatu, and the Solomon islands.
It’s fascinating how faults in the earth’s crust can result in such dramatic creation or destruction of the world around us. Plate boundaries and hotspots can be found from the abyss of the ocean to the peaks of mountains. These phenomenon are terrifying when you are faced with an imminent catastrophe, but fascinating when you look at it from the other side of the seismograph.
Crust Chronicles
Plate boundaries are where two continental plates meet. One might encounter extreme environmental conditions near these treacherous areas. There are three types of plate boundaries that are usually the cause of some natural disasters, mainly earthquakes and volcanoes.
The first type of plate boundary is called a divergent boundary. This is where two tectonic plates move away from each other. Since the crust is parted, magma rises and erupts, resulting in a volcano. Most of these volcanoes are found in the depths of the oceans. As the ocean floor expands, it puts pressure on the land, which can result in earthquakes and tsunamis. This immense pressure and resulting lava flow can also create mid-ocean ridges, mountains that form underwater. When these mountains reach above the surface of the ocean, an island is born! These boundaries are therefore also referred to as “constructive boundaries.”
The second type of boundary is called a transform boundary. Transform boundaries occur when the earth’s plates grind past each other. Massive earthquakes occur at occasional faults along these boundaries. These boundaries only exist on land and are best known for the San Andreas fault that runs through California. Since additional crust is neither created or destroyed, they were given the nickname “conservative boundaries.”
Lastly, convergent boundaries are when two plates collide. At times, these plates smash each other so forcefully that they subduct. Subduction means that one continental plate slides under another plate. This often results in major earthquakes. Since one plate slides under the other, the lower plate melts under the intense pressure as well as heat created by friction. The sudden burst of pressure causes all the volcanoes in this area to erupt. Because of this, some call them “destructive boundaries,” referring to the crust that is destroyed or destructed in the process of subduction.
Most scientists believe that the hotspot mechanism is responsible for certain volcanic activity. They think that this is how the Hawaiian, Galapagos, and a few Indonesian islands were formed. This happens when the earth’s crust passes over an enormous chamber, or column of magma, called mantle plumes, just below the earth’s crust. Usually, magma is found in the asthenosphere or thereunder, while hotspot magma is found above the asthenosphere. The magma then rises up through the crust and erupts as a volcano once at the surface. These volcanoes keep erupting until they pass completely over the hotspot. When a new piece of crust moves over the hotspot, a volcano reforms. These can construct a chain of islands like the hotspot islands that exist currently!
There is another theory geologists suggest might be the cause of volcanic islands away from plate boundaries. This mechanism is similar to that of a convergent boundary. It occurs when two or more plates compress another plate between them. This causes land to rise, forming mountains or volcanoes towards the center of the plate. This theory also may explain the existence of some lone islands like Fiji, Vanuatu, and the Solomon islands.
It’s fascinating how faults in the earth’s crust can result in such dramatic creation or destruction of the world around us. Plate boundaries and hotspots can be found from the abyss of the ocean to the peaks of mountains. These phenomenon are terrifying when you are faced with an imminent catastrophe, but fascinating when you look at it from the other side of the seismograph.